Several languages, several approaches
There is no single Apache language. The Apachean languages are part of the Southern Athabaskan family, and they include Western Apache, Chiricahua and Mescalero (closely related and often discussed together), Jicarilla, Lipan and Plains Apache (once called Kiowa Apache). Navajo is a related language of a separate nation. The situation of each differs. Some have communities of speakers across several generations, while others have very few speakers left. For that reason, the form that language classes take varies widely.
This article describes the kinds of tools that Apache tribes and communities use. It does not give numbers of speakers or program participants, as these change and differ by source. For current, specific information, consult the education or language offices on the nations’ official websites.
Community language classes
Many language programs offer classes to children, teenagers and adults in the community. Settings include:
- tribal education or language departments, with scheduled evening or weekend sessions
- classes in tribal or public schools, sometimes as a subject and sometimes with more of the day in the language
- early childhood programs where very young children hear and learn simple phrases through songs, play and routines
- summer sessions and camps that give learners several days of concentrated practice
- adult classes for parents and grandparents who want to learn alongside their children
Teachers may be fluent elders, younger community members who have learned the language, or a mix. A common approach is for a fluent elder to speak with learners while a trained teacher helps structure lessons. Some programs use immersion methods where little or no English is spoken in the lesson, and others combine language use with explanation. Apache bilingual education and Apache language in schools cover related school-based efforts.
Learning an Apachean language
Apachean languages have features that can challenge learners who grew up speaking English. They include sounds not found in English, tone, and verbs that carry a great deal of meaning within a single word. The Apache sound system is a topic in itself. Teachers often begin with sounds, greetings, kinship terms and everyday phrases, and then build up. Learners frequently describe patience as essential, since speaking well takes years.
Writing systems
Apache languages were traditionally spoken, not written. Different writing systems, called orthographies, have been developed by linguists and community members over the past century or so, and they do not always match between nations or even between programs. This can be confusing, but community programs usually choose a system suited to their materials and teachers. The topic of Apache writing and literature goes into more depth.
Dictionaries and teaching materials
Dictionaries, word lists, grammars, phrase books, story collections and children’s books support learners. Some have been produced by linguists in collaboration with speakers, and others by tribal language programs. Quality and availability vary, and no dictionary substitutes for hearing the language spoken. Materials may also differ across communities because dialects differ, a point explored under Apache dialect differences.
Teachers create their own materials too: flash cards, picture books, labelled objects, board games and songs. Many of these are used only within the community.
Recordings and digital tools
Audio and video recordings of fluent speakers, made with consent, are a major tool. They preserve pronunciation and allow learners to listen repeatedly. Programs may build archives of recordings, which can be used for lessons, for dictionaries and for storing stories for future generations.
Digital tools such as apps, online word lists and video lessons are also used by some programs, and learners find them convenient. Their limits are well recognized: they cannot replace conversation, and decisions have to be made about what is recorded and who can access it. Some material, especially anything connected to ceremonies, is not shared publicly.
Earlier documentation efforts, by missionaries, anthropologists and linguists, also contributed. Their work is of mixed value and was often done without Apache control, which is partly why present-day programs insist on community direction. Early Apache language documentation covers that history.
Master-apprentice and mentoring models
Some programs use one-on-one mentoring in which a learner spends many hours with a fluent speaker doing ordinary activities, such as cooking, walking or crafts, using the language. This approach is often described as effective because it mirrors the way languages are naturally acquired. It requires a lot of time from both people and the availability of speakers.
Challenges
Communities describe common difficulties:
- fewer fluent speakers each year in many places
- limited funding and staffing for teachers
- the pull of English in media, school and work
- learners who feel shy or discouraged
- the need to train new teachers
- disagreement about spelling, dialect and what materials to share
Despite these, language programs exist in a number of Apache communities and continue to grow in various ways. Apache language revitalization looks at the wider picture, and discussions of endangered Apache languages explain the stakes.
Language and tradition
Language classes are closely tied to wider cultural learning. Learners often pick up kinship terms, place names, songs and stories, which are part of daily life. Programs often hold classes during community events or alongside crafts, so language is attached to activity. This link between speaking and doing is central to the way most Apache language programs are designed.