What counts as documented
When people ask how Apache peoples hunted and gathered, they are usually relying on a few kinds of sources: accounts by Spanish, Mexican and American observers; ethnographic studies made mainly in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries; archaeological finds; and the knowledge held in Apache communities. Each has limits. Outside observers often saw only part of the year or misunderstood what they saw, and archaeology tends to preserve stone, bone and charred remains better than plants or perishable tools. This article focuses on practices that appear consistently, and it says where they differ.
Hunting methods
Hunting was typically a skilled activity learned over years. Several features appear in many accounts.
Knowledge of animals. Successful hunting depended on knowing how animals moved with seasons, where they watered, and how to approach them. Tracking is a well-known skill, and the later army service of Apache men as scouts drew on this kind of landscape knowledge; Apache scouts and tracking skills are covered by other articles on this site.
Weapons and tools. Bows and arrows were the main hunting weapons before firearms became available. Spears, knives and snares or traps for small game are also reported. Firearms and horses, once obtained through trade and raiding, changed hunting, especially for groups on the Plains.
Group hunts and individual hunts. Both are described. Some accounts mention groups working together to drive or surround animals, while many hunts involved individuals or small parties. Which approach was used depended on the animal, the terrain and the group.
Processing. After a successful hunt, animals were butchered, with meat dried or cooked and hides prepared for use. Little was wasted, although accounts differ on details. Hide preparation is a craft in its own right, covered in the article on Apache hide tanning.
Gathering methods
Gathering is less visible in the historical record than hunting, but it was equally skilled.
Timing. Plants are ready at certain times, and gathering depended on knowing when. Fruit that is picked early may be unpleasant, and nuts that fall can be lost to animals. The knowledge of timing was passed on through teaching and experience.
Digging, cutting and picking. Pointed digging sticks were used for roots and bulbs. Agave hearts were cut with a sharp tool and trimmed. Fruits and seeds were picked or beaten into baskets. Tools are discussed in more general terms in Apache tools.
Carrying and storing. Baskets were basic equipment for gathering and carrying. Apache basket makers produced a range of types, some for carrying and some for water, and for food that was cooked or stored.
Processing. Many wild foods needed additional steps. Agave was roasted, nuts were shelled or ground, and fruits and meat were dried. These steps are described in the article on cooking methods, and so are not repeated here.
Regional variation
Where a group lived determined much of what it did.
- Western Apache groups in Arizona combined gathering at different elevations, deer hunting, and in some places farming along streams.
- Chiricahua and Mescalero groups in the dry mountain and basin country of southern New Mexico, Arizona and northern Mexico relied heavily on agave and other desert and mountain plants and on game.
- The Jicarilla in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado combined mountain gathering and hunting with plains bison hunting and trade with Pueblo communities.
- The Lipan and Plains Apache, on the southern Plains and in Texas, were more oriented to bison, and also gathered plants and, at times, planted crops.
These are generalizations. Over centuries, groups moved, mixed and changed their economies, and the period of the Spanish colonial presence, then Mexican and American control, brought changes of its own. Even within one nation, different bands and families might emphasize different resources.
Roles and learning
Many sources describe a division of labor in which men hunted large game and women gathered plants, but they also describe overlap and flexibility. Women could take part in hunting small game or in butchering, men could take part in agave harvests, and children and elders contributed in many ways. Apache women is a broad subject that reaches well beyond food, and the picture of roles was not identical in each group.
Learning was mostly by doing: boys and girls accompanied older relatives, watched, tried tasks, and took on more responsibility as they grew. Knowledge could also be tied to stories and place names.
What changed
Settlement, military campaigns and the reservation system restricted where people could travel, hunt and gather, and over time government rations and wage work replaced much hunting and gathering for daily food. Hunting restrictions and land ownership, including on and off reservations, continue to shape what is possible today. Many Apache people still hunt and gather, subject to the rules that apply where they live. Current rules and programs differ among nations, and readers should consult official tribal sources for details.