Why naming matters
“Apache” is a broad label covering several distinct peoples with their own governments, homelands and histories. Naming the correct one is the first step toward citing accurately, because it tells readers whose history you are describing and prevents the errors that come from treating the Apache as a single nation.
Use the specific name when you know it
Where a source or event clearly concerns a particular people, use that name. The main groups are usually described as:
- the Western Apache, including groups such as the White Mountain Apache and the San Carlos Apache;
- the Chiricahua, associated with the Fort Sill Apache Tribe and also with the Mescalero Apache Tribe;
- the Mescalero Apache;
- the Jicarilla Apache;
- the Lipan Apache;
- the Plains Apache of Oklahoma, formerly called Kiowa Apache in older sources.
Which nations are federally recognized, and what they are officially called, is best checked on the nations’ own websites. The topic of federally recognized Apache tribes is itself a point of discussion, so avoid guessing. Where a source names only “the Apache” and you cannot tell which people are meant, say so rather than assigning it.
Be careful with the Yavapai and with the Navajo. The Yavapai are a different people, although a nation exists that combines Yavapai and Apache communities. The Navajo are closely related linguistically but are a separate nation, so treat Navajo as separate nation in your writing and citations.
Self-names and older terms
Apache peoples have names for themselves in their own languages, which vary by group. Some are related forms of a word meaning “the people.” If you use one, spell it as the nation’s own materials do and do not generalize it to all Apache groups. The background on Apache self-names and the Nde self-name shows why one word cannot stand for everyone.
Some older names appear in historical documents and can be misleading or offensive. “Kiowa Apache” is the main example of a historical label that has largely given way to Plains Apache, although you will meet it in older sources and may need to quote it. When you do, explain it briefly. Similarly, nineteenth-century records use band names, spellings and labels chosen by outsiders. Keep such spellings inside quotation marks and add the modern name in your own text.
Terms to avoid
- “Tribe” used loosely for everyone, “the Apache tribe”, or “Apache Indians” as a single group.
- Language that places the people only in the past, such as “vanished” or “extinct.”
- Words such as “savage,” “primitive,” “brave” and “squaw,” and any term that treats Apache people as a type rather than as individuals.
- “Medicine man” and “shaman” used as generic labels; where a source uses specific terms, report them accurately and with care.
- Describing a person as “chief” without checking. Titles in army reports often do not match how leadership worked.
When a historical source uses language like this, quote it only if needed, and make clear that the wording is the author’s.
Citing published sources
Cite the edition you used, the page number, and the author’s name and affiliation where known. Note whether the source is a primary document, such as an army report, or a later interpretation. If the author is Apache, name the nation as they state it. For government documents, follow your style guide and give the archive and collection details, which matters for work with National Archives records.
Citing oral sources and community knowledge
Oral accounts belong to the people who hold them. Ethical practice usually includes:
- Get permission first. Ask the person, and where appropriate the nation’s cultural or historic preservation office, before recording or quoting.
- State the terms. Explain how the material will be used, published and stored, and whether it will be credited by name.
- Credit as agreed. Name the speaker, the date and the setting if they agree. Some people prefer not to be named, and that wish should be honored.
- Respect limits. Some knowledge is not for publication. If someone declines to share, do not look for the same material elsewhere to publish.
- Check before publishing. Offer to let the person read how you have used their account.
Never invent a source, an elder or a quotation. If you cannot document it, do not attribute it. Material found online with no named source should not be cited as Apache knowledge; the guidance on fake Apache blessings applies here too.
Citing websites and tribal sources
Use the page’s title, author or organization, publication or update date, and the date you accessed it. Prefer pages produced by the nation or its cultural program. For current facts, name the nation’s website as the source and recheck it before publication, because details change.
A brief checklist
- Is the specific people named, and is the name spelled as they use it?
- Are historical labels explained rather than repeated as current?
- Is every oral source credited with permission?
- Are dates, titles and numbers drawn from a cited source?
- Does the text treat the people as present today?